Celtic Polytheism
Celtic Polytheism is a diverse culture that has been around since as early as 900 BCE. (1) The Celts themselves were such a varied group that it is hard to define them as a whole. They occupied land in modern day Eastern Europe, Greece, Spain, Northern Italy, Western Europe, England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. (2) Due to their firm belief in oral traditions, most modern information about the Celts comes from other cultures they ran into, such as Julius Caesar and Christian monks of the British Isles. According to Roman record, the Celts were a warrior culture, but other sources describe them as agrarian. However, the only direct line to the Celts is their artifacts that are found throughout Europe, so they might have been completely different than other cultures described.
The first significant recorded date in their history was the Celtic Iron Age, which lasted from 800 to 15 BCE. (3) During their Iron Age, iron weapons allowed them to increase their territory, "spreading outwards from their original homeland east of the Rhine." (4) Next came the La Tène and Hallstatt cultures in 400 BCE. The Hallstatt people, who mostly inhabited modern day Austria, are famous for their superb skills with iron, as well their swords that were so magnificent they took them to the grave. The people of the La Tène culture, in the area now known as Switzerland, are known for their skill with metalwork and pottery. Their artifacts also feature the swirls and geometric patterns that always bring the Celts to mind. (5)
The Celts then entered Italy and settled the Po Valley, which is in Northern Italy, around 400 BCE. Not long after, The Gallic Catastrophe occurred. In 387 BCE, Duke Brennus of the Celts defeated the Romans at Allia and sacked Rome, beginning a centuries long conflict. After that success, they began to raid Illyrian territories of the Balkan Peninsula in 380 BCE. Then some Celts crossed the Channel to Britain in 300 BCE. (4)
Celts in Italy attempted to make peace with the Romans, but they ended up battling anyways as it seemed the rambunctious Celts and the strict Romans were not destined to get along. They were defeated by Rome over the span of 285 BCE to 282 BCE. Celtic fortified tribal centers, or Oppida, spread from 200 BCE to 100 BCE, solidly establishing their culture. However, fighting between the Celts and the Romans continued until the final defeat of the Celts in southern Europe by Julius Caesar ended the Gallic Wars of 58 to 51 BCE. (6) Almost a hundred years later, a Roman legion landed in Britain in 43 CE, triggering the decline of Celtic society. (4)
The ancient Celts main religion was Celtic Polytheism. Polytheism means many gods, and the Celts most definitely followed that definition. The Romans recorded almost 400 Celtic god names. However, it is believed that there were four or five gods that all of the tribes worshiped and the rest were only revered by specific tribes, or tuath. The ancient Celts particularly believe in supernatural beings that inhabited and manipulated parts of the natural world, similar to the gods of the Romans and Greeks. However, unlike the mainly human and functional gods of Greece of Rome, the Celtic gods were often in animal form and lacked distinct functions. The Celts were also animistic, and believed that inanimate things like trees and rocks had spirits and could react to the world. Their theology was more about mystical understanding than pure structure. (7)
The person with the most say in Celtic government was the druid, or priest. The druids were in charge of all legal matters and could overpower the Chieftain, or elected tribal leader.The druids were responsible for orally passing down all cultural history and religion as well, acting as human history books. The Celts also shared all tribal land and livestock, which could have been the result of the value of nature that their religion taught. No individual could own land, just as they could not own another human being, because nothing with a soul could be a possession. (8)
With the minimal record of Celtic behavior, it is hard to know whether or not they were religiously tolerant. However, there is one example, where the Celts did not impose their language or their religion on German tribes under their rule. They even allowed the Germans to burn their dead, despite the Continental Celts' belief that the use of fire was a humiliation, "to be inflicted on criminals, or upon slaves or prisoners in those terrible human sacrifices which are the greatest stain on their native Culture." (9) Outside of that specific Celtic tribe, it is challenging to be positive of their religious tolerance as an entire culture.
The Celtic people used art as a way to assimilate the ideas of surrounding cultures and make them uniquely Celtic. Since they did not believe in written word, art was their way of representing their gods and their beliefs. For example, the famous Celtic knot can be interpreted as the timeless nature of the spirit and the world. Rather than specifically writing their beliefs as many other religions did, they created allegoric symbols and intricate carvings of their gods. Their clothing was even brilliantly decorated and artistic. Their art was their identity and their sacred text. (9)
There are no texts created by the Celts, but there are quite a few images. As previously mentioned, Celtic knots are recognized around the world as the beautiful work of the Celts. What makes the Celtic knot unique is that it never ends; it weaves in and out and has no beginning or end. It is by far the most well-known Celtic image and is incorporated into many modern art pieces.
The Celts had a tendency to raid other cultures. On the other hand, they did not disregard the cultures they overtook like the Romans did. Instead, they took the opportunity to make more art, incorporating foreign art into their own as previously mentioned. It is on account of their interactions with other cultures that much of their art exists today. They may have fought with other cultures, but they did not eliminate their art. (9)
As they were a fairly aggressive culture, one of the many Celtic art forms is that of battle gear, such as swords, shields, and helmets. As with much of their art, the battle gear featured geometric patterns, particularly curves. The Celts are also known for their bronze-work, for the majority of Celtic artifacts found today are made of bronze. Another common art form is that of the torc, twisted bronze, gold, or silver wire to be worn around the neck. The most beautiful of their art forms outside of Celtic knots are their mirrors, which feature complex patterns on their backs. There are numerous other art forms, but they are not as well-known. (10)
Even though the ancient Celtic religion faded out of Europe when Christianity came, many modern people attempt to follow Celtic Polytheism. Some individuals have even formed a movement known as Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, which is "a polytheistic, animistic, religious, and cultural movement...an effort to reconstruct, within a modern Celtic cultural context, the aspects of ancient Celtic religions that were lost or subsumed by Christianity." (11) They face a challenging task, since the Celts did not record those same ways that Christianity destroyed.
Many other Celtic aspects are prevalent in modern society. Celtic mythology is common in the media, including fairies and selkies, or seals who could transform into women. Many women wear rings bearing the renowned Celtic knots. It has also become a marketing technique to call certain kinds of music Celtic. However, many people see the Celts as barbarians that sacrificed human beings mercilessly. Others, mainly those who pursue monotheistic religions, view them as pagans who worshiped evil spirits. The most common perception of the Celts is that they were inhabitants of Ireland and Scotland that told tales of fairies and loved nature.
The first significant recorded date in their history was the Celtic Iron Age, which lasted from 800 to 15 BCE. (3) During their Iron Age, iron weapons allowed them to increase their territory, "spreading outwards from their original homeland east of the Rhine." (4) Next came the La Tène and Hallstatt cultures in 400 BCE. The Hallstatt people, who mostly inhabited modern day Austria, are famous for their superb skills with iron, as well their swords that were so magnificent they took them to the grave. The people of the La Tène culture, in the area now known as Switzerland, are known for their skill with metalwork and pottery. Their artifacts also feature the swirls and geometric patterns that always bring the Celts to mind. (5)
The Celts then entered Italy and settled the Po Valley, which is in Northern Italy, around 400 BCE. Not long after, The Gallic Catastrophe occurred. In 387 BCE, Duke Brennus of the Celts defeated the Romans at Allia and sacked Rome, beginning a centuries long conflict. After that success, they began to raid Illyrian territories of the Balkan Peninsula in 380 BCE. Then some Celts crossed the Channel to Britain in 300 BCE. (4)
Celts in Italy attempted to make peace with the Romans, but they ended up battling anyways as it seemed the rambunctious Celts and the strict Romans were not destined to get along. They were defeated by Rome over the span of 285 BCE to 282 BCE. Celtic fortified tribal centers, or Oppida, spread from 200 BCE to 100 BCE, solidly establishing their culture. However, fighting between the Celts and the Romans continued until the final defeat of the Celts in southern Europe by Julius Caesar ended the Gallic Wars of 58 to 51 BCE. (6) Almost a hundred years later, a Roman legion landed in Britain in 43 CE, triggering the decline of Celtic society. (4)
The ancient Celts main religion was Celtic Polytheism. Polytheism means many gods, and the Celts most definitely followed that definition. The Romans recorded almost 400 Celtic god names. However, it is believed that there were four or five gods that all of the tribes worshiped and the rest were only revered by specific tribes, or tuath. The ancient Celts particularly believe in supernatural beings that inhabited and manipulated parts of the natural world, similar to the gods of the Romans and Greeks. However, unlike the mainly human and functional gods of Greece of Rome, the Celtic gods were often in animal form and lacked distinct functions. The Celts were also animistic, and believed that inanimate things like trees and rocks had spirits and could react to the world. Their theology was more about mystical understanding than pure structure. (7)
The person with the most say in Celtic government was the druid, or priest. The druids were in charge of all legal matters and could overpower the Chieftain, or elected tribal leader.The druids were responsible for orally passing down all cultural history and religion as well, acting as human history books. The Celts also shared all tribal land and livestock, which could have been the result of the value of nature that their religion taught. No individual could own land, just as they could not own another human being, because nothing with a soul could be a possession. (8)
With the minimal record of Celtic behavior, it is hard to know whether or not they were religiously tolerant. However, there is one example, where the Celts did not impose their language or their religion on German tribes under their rule. They even allowed the Germans to burn their dead, despite the Continental Celts' belief that the use of fire was a humiliation, "to be inflicted on criminals, or upon slaves or prisoners in those terrible human sacrifices which are the greatest stain on their native Culture." (9) Outside of that specific Celtic tribe, it is challenging to be positive of their religious tolerance as an entire culture.
The Celtic people used art as a way to assimilate the ideas of surrounding cultures and make them uniquely Celtic. Since they did not believe in written word, art was their way of representing their gods and their beliefs. For example, the famous Celtic knot can be interpreted as the timeless nature of the spirit and the world. Rather than specifically writing their beliefs as many other religions did, they created allegoric symbols and intricate carvings of their gods. Their clothing was even brilliantly decorated and artistic. Their art was their identity and their sacred text. (9)
There are no texts created by the Celts, but there are quite a few images. As previously mentioned, Celtic knots are recognized around the world as the beautiful work of the Celts. What makes the Celtic knot unique is that it never ends; it weaves in and out and has no beginning or end. It is by far the most well-known Celtic image and is incorporated into many modern art pieces.
The Celts had a tendency to raid other cultures. On the other hand, they did not disregard the cultures they overtook like the Romans did. Instead, they took the opportunity to make more art, incorporating foreign art into their own as previously mentioned. It is on account of their interactions with other cultures that much of their art exists today. They may have fought with other cultures, but they did not eliminate their art. (9)
As they were a fairly aggressive culture, one of the many Celtic art forms is that of battle gear, such as swords, shields, and helmets. As with much of their art, the battle gear featured geometric patterns, particularly curves. The Celts are also known for their bronze-work, for the majority of Celtic artifacts found today are made of bronze. Another common art form is that of the torc, twisted bronze, gold, or silver wire to be worn around the neck. The most beautiful of their art forms outside of Celtic knots are their mirrors, which feature complex patterns on their backs. There are numerous other art forms, but they are not as well-known. (10)
Even though the ancient Celtic religion faded out of Europe when Christianity came, many modern people attempt to follow Celtic Polytheism. Some individuals have even formed a movement known as Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, which is "a polytheistic, animistic, religious, and cultural movement...an effort to reconstruct, within a modern Celtic cultural context, the aspects of ancient Celtic religions that were lost or subsumed by Christianity." (11) They face a challenging task, since the Celts did not record those same ways that Christianity destroyed.
Many other Celtic aspects are prevalent in modern society. Celtic mythology is common in the media, including fairies and selkies, or seals who could transform into women. Many women wear rings bearing the renowned Celtic knots. It has also become a marketing technique to call certain kinds of music Celtic. However, many people see the Celts as barbarians that sacrificed human beings mercilessly. Others, mainly those who pursue monotheistic religions, view them as pagans who worshiped evil spirits. The most common perception of the Celts is that they were inhabitants of Ireland and Scotland that told tales of fairies and loved nature.
(1) "The Celts -- Ancient History Encyclopedia." 2014. 28 Oct. 2014. [EDU]
(2) Denault, Leigh. "Celtic Europe." 2002. 6 Oct. 2014. [EDU]
(3) "The Celts -- Ancient History Encyclopedia." 2014. 28 Oct. 2014. [EDU]
(4) Gascoigne, Bamber. "HISTORY OF THE CELTS." HistoryWorld. 2001. 4 Dec. 2014. [EDU]
(5) Gascoigne, Bamber. "HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND." HistoryWorld. 2001. 12 Dec. 2014. [EDU]
(6) Wiener, James. "A Peek into the "World of the Celts"." 2013. 4 Dec. 2014. [EDU]
(7) "Celtic Religion - GaelicMatters." 2011. 2 Oct. 2014. [ORG]
(8) "Social Classes of the Celts - Angelfire." 2003. 11 Dec. 2014. [BLOG]
(9) Rolleston, Thomas. Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race. London, G. G. Harrap & Company, 1911. Print.
(10) "Roman and Celtic Artefacts - Time Trips." 2010. 14 Oct. 2014. [EDU]
(11) "The CR FAQ - A Celtic Reconstructionist Gateway." 2006. 12 Dec. 2014. [RELIGIOUS]
(2) Denault, Leigh. "Celtic Europe." 2002. 6 Oct. 2014. [EDU]
(3) "The Celts -- Ancient History Encyclopedia." 2014. 28 Oct. 2014. [EDU]
(4) Gascoigne, Bamber. "HISTORY OF THE CELTS." HistoryWorld. 2001. 4 Dec. 2014. [EDU]
(5) Gascoigne, Bamber. "HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND." HistoryWorld. 2001. 12 Dec. 2014. [EDU]
(6) Wiener, James. "A Peek into the "World of the Celts"." 2013. 4 Dec. 2014. [EDU]
(7) "Celtic Religion - GaelicMatters." 2011. 2 Oct. 2014. [ORG]
(8) "Social Classes of the Celts - Angelfire." 2003. 11 Dec. 2014. [BLOG]
(9) Rolleston, Thomas. Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race. London, G. G. Harrap & Company, 1911. Print.
(10) "Roman and Celtic Artefacts - Time Trips." 2010. 14 Oct. 2014. [EDU]
(11) "The CR FAQ - A Celtic Reconstructionist Gateway." 2006. 12 Dec. 2014. [RELIGIOUS]